介紹成語的來源與漢譯
所謂典故性成語，指的是出自歷史事件、寓言、神話、傳說等一類的成語。其特點是源遠流長，富含較濃厚的民族色彩，廣為民間使用，約定俗成。如果說多以詞、詞組、句子形式出現是語言的結構特征，那么作為語言一分支的典故性成語多以詞組形式而很少以句子形式出現。它雖然結構簡單，但內容豐富，意義精深。其形式的固定性、意義的整體性表明不可隨意改變它的結構，也不可隨便將其中的各詞分割開來。如cat's paw，可謂最簡單不過的了，但又絕非杜撰和臆造，而是出自法國拉豐丹的一則寓言故事，講一只猴子利用貓為其從火中取栗子。在現實生活中則常用來指被別人當作工具或爪牙利用的人。又如no respecter of persons在用字方面也可謂比較簡單，它出自《新約使徒行傳》第十章："Then Peter opened his mouth，and said，of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons，"原指上帝"不偏待人"，如今該成語在本義的基礎上暗含"歧視"之義，然而在不民的語境中效果卻不一樣。GoDoHoCole曾在"Practical Economics"中用此成語來說明墨索里尼"不偏待人"，其實是對他的諷刺。如果能將此類成語運用得恰到好處，就會使文章、演說等大為增色，從而說明深刻的道理，使人受到深刻的教育。下面擬就典故性成語的來源與漢譯作下探討：
一、源于歷史故事或歷史事件。
歷史上出現過眾多的著名歷史故事或事件，后人常用一簡潔說法表達其內容，沿用久了就成了成語。如Sword damocles出自古代希臘的一則歷史故事。業通古希臘歷史、文學的羅馬杰出作家與政論家西塞羅在其論文《圖斯庫拉的談話》中寫道："紀元前4世紀西西里島上敘拉古的統治者狄奧尼修斯一世有個親信的佞叫達摩克里斯，他很羨慕帝王的豪華生活，常說："君王是人世間最幸福的人"。狄奧尼修斯為了教訓這個想得君位者，在一次宴會上，要他坐在國王的寶座上，當他猛然抬頭，只見頭頂上有一把用頭發懸著的寶劍，隨時都刺到頭頂的危險。他嚇得戰戰兢兢，如坐針氈，時刻提心吊膽，惶惶不安。由此便產生了"達摩克里斯的寶劍"這個成語，它被用來比喻臨頭的危險或情況的危急，類似于漢語的"千鈞一發"。又如burn one's boats（bridges），此成語中的bridges為美國人所使用，原指古羅馬朱力斯o凱撒大軍乘船越過Rubicon后就把船燒了，以此向士兵指明后路已斷，不可能后退。現借用來比喻"不留后路，下定決心干到底"，同漢語的"破釜沉舟"。
二、源于寓言故事。
寓言是用比喻的形式說明一定的道理，是文學作品中最為短小精練的一種形式。如kill the goose to get the eggs，源于希臘寓言，說的是曾有一個鄉下人，因為發財心切殺死了自己飼養的那只能下金蛋的鵝，以為如此就可一次獲得全部想象中的金塊，但其結果一無所獲。現借比喻只貪圖眼前利益，沒有長遠打算。但漢語中不說"殺鵝取卵"而說"殺雞取卵"，喻體不同，因此漢譯時須遵循漢語成語的搭配規律。又如Veper and File出自《伊索寓言》，說的是一條蝰蛇（Viper）發現一把鐵銼（File），以為是一頓美餐。但鐵銼說，它的天職是咬別人，而不是被別人咬。后人借此比喻"騙人者反受人騙"，漢譯時要作直譯或意譯處理。
三、源于神話故事。
神話是關于神仙或神化的古代英雄的故事，是古代人們對自然現象和社會生活的一種天真的解釋和美好向往。如rain cats and dogs，源于北歐神話，貓對天氣有很大影響，英國水手至今說："貓尾巴藏大風"。據說駕暴風雨的巫士化為貓形。狗是風的信號，狗和狼都是暴風雨神奧丁的隨從。在德國古畫中，風被畫成狗頭和狼頭。因此 ，貓被年作暴雨的象征，狗是伴隨暴雨的強風，to rain cats and dogs就是to rain heavily/hard，漢譯便為"下傾盆大到雨"。又如Analthea's horn，漢譯常為"豐饒的羊角"。阿瑪爾忒亞（Amalthea），希臘祖籍中一神女，是宙斯（Zeus為主神，相當于羅馬神話中的朱庇特Jupiter）的保姆。嬰兒時宙斯由神女阿瑪爾忒亞喂以羊乳。為了感思，宙斯敲下一羊角送給她。許諾讓羊角主人永遠豐饒。
四、傳說。
傳說指的是人們口頭流傳下來的關于某人某事的敘述。如swan song，據傳說，音樂之神阿波羅（Apollo）的靈魂進入了一只天鵝，由此產生了畢達哥斯寓言：所有杰出詩人的靈魂都進入天鵝體內。另據相傳天鵝（swan）在臨終前唱的歌最優美動聽。后人就用swan song來比喻詩人、作曲家、演員等的"最后作品"，這也是其漢譯形式。又如Leave no stone unturned，相傳公元前447年波斯獎軍馬多尼奧斯在希臘的普拉蒂亞兵敗被殺后，留下一大批財寶在軍帳里。底比斯的波利克拉特斯搜尋卻一無所獲，請示德爾斐神諭后知道要"翻轉所有的石頭"，最后找到了財寶。現借此比喻想方設法等，漢譯為"千方百計，想盡辦法"。
五、源于民間風俗。
如a bird of ill omen，源出古代占卜風俗，延至今日，貓頭鷹、鸛則被視為吉祥鳥）。渡鳥嗅覺靈敏，能確定遠方死尸和腐尸地點。因此渡鳥象征死亡。貓頭鷹在惡劣天氣來臨之前喊叫，而壞天氣常帶來疾病，故貓頭鷹被視為喪鳥，陰森之鳥。后人以此比喻"不吉利的人，常帶來不幸消息的人"，漢譯也是如此。又如a feather in your cap，漢譯為"值得榮耀的事、榮譽"。源于廣泛流行于亞洲和美洲印第安人當中的一種風俗：每殺死一個敵人就在頭飾或帽子上加插一根羽毛。古代呂西亞人和許多其他古人也有類似風俗，均以此來顯示戰績與榮譽。
六、源于諺語。
諺語是在人閃中間流傳的固定語句，用簡單通俗的話反映出深刻的`道理，是社會生活經驗的總結。如birds of a feather flock together.即"物以類聚，人以群分"，轉義為"一丘之貉"。在《魯迅全集》中有這樣一句："增加混亂的倒是有些悲觀論者……將一切作者詆為'一丘之貉"。其英譯為In fact it is these pessimists who increase the chaos by…considering all writers birds of a feather. 又如 early bird，其漢澤為"早起者，早到的人"，源出諺語The early bird gets/catches the worm.意為"捷足先登（得），先下手為強"。比較First come，first served.意指"先到的先招待"，與前一個有所不同。
七、源于某些作品。
英語中有較好的成語出自某些作品，有的是原封未動的摘引，有的是節縮而成。如wash one's hands of a thing，可譯為"洗手不干……；與……斷絕關系"。出自《馬太福音》，猶太巡撫彼拉多主持審判耶穌，由于他判定耶穌無罪，一些猶太人不服，因此他當眾宣布洗耳恭聽手辭職并交出了耶穌，以示自己與此案無關。又如as significant as the shake of Lord Burleigh's head，其漢譯為"象拍利勛爵晃腦袋般意味深長"。出自愛爾蘭劇作家及政治家謝尼丹在《評論家》中的一幕模擬悲劇《西班牙無敵艦隊》。伯利勛爵埋頭于國事，日理萬機，忙得邊說話的時間都沒有，靠晃腦袋表達思想。普夫則根據這個晃動解釋他所表示的意思。
八、源于動物、植物、生活用品、人名、地名等。
如：⑴shed crocodile tears，據西方古代傳說，鱷魚吃人畜，一邊吃，一邊掉眼淚，比喻壞人假裝同情被害者。類似于漢語"貓哭老鼠，假慈悲"，且人們常采用此語的前一部分作為其漢譯。例如All your piteous words for the tenants are no more than crocodile tears.其漢譯為"你這些憐惜佃戶的話，都是貓哭老鼠"。
⑵the apple of discord，其漢譯為"爭斗的原因或根源"。傳說厄里斯女神未被邀請參加Thetis和Peleus的婚禮，她就把蘋果扔有參加婚禮的神與神中間。特洛伊王子帕里斯把它給了三個女神中最漂亮的維納斯。這就間接地引起了古希臘人和特洛伊人之間的特洛伊戰爭。
⑶Simon Legree，此人是美國女作家斯陀夫人所著《湯姆大伯的小屋》一書中管黑奴的工頭，此人既尖酸刻薄，又好吹毛求疵。其漢譯為"尖酸刻薄、好吹毛求疵的人"。
⑷being Burke，其漢譯為"出身名門，貴族門第"。源于編纂《貴族人名錄》作者愛爾蘭人約翰o伯克（John Burke）之名，該《人名錄》自1826年以來一直被公認是研究英國貴族階級及其家譜的權威著作。故列入伯克氏貴族人名錄即為貴族出身。
⑸all Dutch/Greek to me，其漢譯為"一竅不通"，其中Dutch與Greek原為"荷蘭語"和"希臘語"。
⑹have the free-simple of May Fair，其漢譯為"不受出身等限制無條件繼承取得的不動產"，其中May Fair乃"倫敦西區貴族住宅區"，十八世紀時該地區每年五月均有集市，因而得名。
⑺Life is but an empty dream，其漢譯為"人生如夢"。源于美國詩人Longfellow的詩文。
⑻lose face漢譯為"面部"或"臉"之意。
⑼Jack of all trades漢譯為"雜而不精的人"，出自Jack of all trades and master of none.其中Jack原為"杰克"，trades指"多種行業"。
⑽spill the beans，漢譯為"泄漏消息（秘密）"，bean原為"豆類；豆科植物"等。
⑾be fond of the cup/the bottle，漢譯為"貪杯中之物；好酒"，cup與bottle原為"茶杯"和"瓶子"。
⑿Roman holiday，漢譯為"欣賞別人受苦的娛樂"，而非"羅馬的假日"。
⒀as cool as cucumber，漢譯為"十分冷靜"，其中cucumber原指"黃瓜"。
⒁like a brick，漢譯為"拼命的"，brick原指"磚"。
⒂have a ball at one's foot，漢譯為"有成功的機會"，源于足球運動。
⒃be off the track漢譯為"走入歧途，迷失方向"等，源于狩獵，原指獵狗失去嗅跡。
以上簡要地談了英語中典故性成語的來源與漢譯。其實英語中還有許多這樣的成語，而且掌握它們也并不那么容易，加上漢語中此類成語也不少，且它們具有類似的特點與作用，尤其是象"破釜沉舟"等一類成語，英漢兩種語言的彼此巧合，會使人誤以為這兩種語言是彼此相通且文化背景一致。這樣就錯了。漢語中的"破釜沉舟"出自《史記·項羽本紀》："項羽乃悉引兵流河，皆沉船，破釜甑，燒廬舍，持三日糧，以示士卒必死，無一還心"。雙如"殺鵝取卵"，漢語中則說"殺雞取蛋（卵）"。因此，只要透析兩種語言的淵源，就不難發現其不同所在。而要使學習者克服因這些不同所帶來的困難，就必須引導他們從所語言的角度去認識、去掌握與運用，切忌把兩種典故性成語混為一談，如漢語中的"貓哭老鼠"譯為英語就須用crocodile's tears，否則很可能會叫人不知所云，反之亦然。有人常犯諸如生搬硬套的錯誤，主要原因是平時學習中不注意積累有關典故性成語來源的知識與漢譯的技巧，不了解英語受世界文化影響的程度，故不能靈活運用。對于學習漢語多年的外國人，如不了解中國古代光輝燦爛的文化，不留心典故性成語之出處，肯定會弄不清像"請君不甕"等一類典故性成語的來歷。因此，要在英語教學中適當改進教學內容，利用課常講授或已有的園地刊載典故性成語來源的文章，從而更好地促進英語教學。
Chapter 24： Writing a Paragraph： Focus on Coherence and Unity
The last chapter discussed the importance of using good grammar and good word choice in your writing. However, the most grammatically perfect paragraph will not receive a good grade if it is poorly organized and not focused on a central idea. The paragraph must have unity and coherence. These ideas were discussed briefly in chapter 22, but in this chapter we will explore unity and coherence more fully so that you can learn how these elements impact your writing.
As you learned in Chapter 22, coherence is whether or not what you write makes sense and whether or not the ideas are arranged in a logical manner. If ideas are out of order in writing, then the reader has a very difficult time trying to understand your point. As a result the reader will lose interest and you will not be able to convey your point.
Unity is equally important. Unity means that your writing sticks to one point at a time. When you mix and match ideas in writing jumping from one idea to the next and back again, the reader has a hard time following you. Inevitably, the reader will not understand your point and will eventually lose interest. This chapter explores ways to help you make certain that your writing is both coherent and unified.
Chapter 21： Writing a Paragraph： Devising a Plan -- Outline
Once you have generated a topic sentence and the details to support that topic sentence, it is time to organize your ideas. By organizing your ideas you will create a clear picture of the structure of your paragraph. The most efficient way to organize ideas is to outline them. With the aid of an outline you will be able to decide if you have enough supporting ideas for your topic sentence and you will be able to eliminate those details that do not support your topic sentence. The outline will also let you test various methods of organization to decide which one suits your topic sentence the best and let you test the placement of your topic sentence within the paragraph to see where it will have the greatest impact on the reader. With the use of an outline you should be able to create organized, coherent, unified, well-supported paragraphs.
Chapter 23： Writing a Paragraph： Polishing, Proofreading, and Preparing Final Copy？Final Lines
The last step in the writing process is proofreading. After you have finished developing and supporting your ideas and after you have checked the organization, it is time to put the finishing touches on your paragraph. As your last step you need to check the spelling, punctuation, mechanics, and word choice of your paragraph as well as check to be certain you have a concluding statement. You cannot check all of these things in one reading so you should break the task into sections. First, check the punctuation and mechanics of your paragraphs. This means you are making sure you don't have errors like comma splices or fragments. You are also making sure you put question marks at the ends of questions and periods at the ends of statements.
The next step is to check your word choice and spelling. You want to be sure that you have used the correct words for your intended meaning, so you want to be sure that you haven't used a two when you need a too. Be sure to double check the spelling of any word you often misspell and look up any word you are unsure of. If you are word processing, use the spell check on your computer to help you with your possible spelling mistakes.
Chapter 26： Writing from Reading
The first step when you write from what you read is to be sure you understand what you have read. To ensure your understanding, you should be an active reader. This means that you should read more than once with a different purpose each time, you should ask questions before, during, and after you read, and you should make notes as you read.
Once you have read actively, you will be prepared to write in a number of different ways. You will be able to summarize what you have read. That means you are accurately re-telling the author's main ideas in your own words. A summary also gives the major supporting details the author has used to support the main ideas. Once again though, summaries are written in YOUR words not the author's words.
Another method of writing about what you have read is to respond to the reading. When you respond to a reading, you pick out a particular point or idea that the author has made and then brainstorm to develop your own ideas based on the author's thought. Unlike summarizing, you are generating your own ideas based on the author's original thought.
Rather than generating a new idea, you may also choose to respond to an idea in the reading. You may agree or disagree with a point the author has made. In your writing, you will explain why you agree or disagree with that point. Once again, you are coming up with your own reasoning and your own wording in response to something you have read.
A particular type of writing you will be required to do is writing answers to essay tests. Essay test questions often ask you to read material and then either summarize the material or respond to it in a particular way. The one thing that makes essay test writing different from other writing situations is the time limit. In a testing situation you will carefully monitor your use of time and you won't put all of the polishing touches in that you would if you had unlimited time to complete the writing.
These are some of the ways you can tie the material that you read to the material you write. You will find that if you follow the advice given in this chapter that you will never be at a loss for a topic to write about.
Chapter 25： Writing a Paragraph： Focus on Support and Details
In this chapter you will study the importance of being specific in the details you use to support an idea. When you write in vague, general terms, you leave the reader to interpret what you mean and often the reader will not have enough information to accurately do that. You must be clear in your meaning so that anyone who reads your work understands exactly what you want him to understand.
It is equally important that you provide enough information to support your ideas. Generally you need 3 to 5 examples per idea to be sure you've given sufficient support. The best way to develop support is to ask yourself questions about your ideas. You can evaluate the support at each stage of the writing process. Much of the work that you do in the rough lines editing is evaluating support and asking questions to be sure you have said enough to clearly communicate your ideas to your audience.
Once you have gathered together as many details as you think you need, you then organize them with a rough outline. This gives you another opportunity to check for sufficient support. Does each section of the outline seem developed? Is there more than one detail for each section? Have you used specific rather than general words as you've outlined? At this point you double-check the topic sentence to be sure it covers all your details. Always remember that the more details you put in the outline the more details will make it into your paragraph.
If you are at a loss for details, try turning to your senses. Asking questions about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, and sounds can provide you with plenty of details. When you are describing an event ask questions like who, what, when, where, how, and why. Read the lecture below for further information on developing support and details for your writing.
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